INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS
By:
REHAN
RAUF ADVOCATE
M.A.
(Political Science)
M.A (History)
P.G.D.E.L., LL.B (
E-mail: DJREHAN103FM@YAHOO.COM
Human rights are sometimes called fundamental rights or basic or
natural Rights. Fundamental or basic rights are those, which must not be taken
away by any legislature, or any act of government and which are often set out
in Constitution. Human rights refer to the "basic rights and freedoms to
which all humans are entitled." Examples of rights and freedoms which are
often thought of as human rights include civil and political rights, such as
the right to life and liberty, freedom of expression, and equality before the
law; and social, cultural and economic rights, including the right to
participate in culture, the right to food, the right to work, and the right to
education.
The Magna Charta or "Great Charter" was one of
Ø J, E.S Fawcett, The law of nations (
“Human Rights are common
rights, for they are rights which men or women in the world should share”
Ø Lauterpacht. International law and human rights, P. 152
“Human Rights are not
created by any legislation, they assume the position
of natural rights”
Ø MC Dougal. Human rights in the United
Nations, Vol.56 (1964), P.604
“International concern with
human rights is not a modern innovation. It is in fact, heir to all great
historic movements for man’s freedom”.
3.
HISTORY OF
HUMAN RIGHTS
This history of human rights
covers thousands of years and draws upon religious, cultural, philosophical and
legal developments throughout recorded history. Several ancient documents and
later religions and philosophies included a variety of concepts that may be
considered to be human rights. Notable among such documents are the Cyrus
cylinder of 539 BC, a declaration of intentions by the Persian emperor Cyrus
the Great after his conquest of the Neo-Babylonian Empire; the Edicts of Ashoka issued by Ashoka the Great
of India between 272-231 BC; and
·
The Constitution of Medina of 622 AD, drafted by
Muhammad to mark a formal agreement between all of the significant tribes and
families of Yathrib (later known as
·
The English Magna Charta of 1215 is particularly
significant in the history of English law, and is hence significant in
international law and constitutional law today.
·
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
approved by the National Assembly of France,
Much of modern human rights law and the basis of
most modern interpretations of human rights can be traced back to relatively
recent history. The British Bill of Rights (or “An Act Declaring the Rights and
Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown”) of 1689
made illegal a range of oppressive governmental actions in the
The charter of united nation
represents a significant advancement so far as faith in and respect, for human
rights is concerned.
Views of philosophers
Ø Philip E.Jacob. “The united nations and struggle for HR”
(January 1951), P.220
“All the organs of UN touch
in greater or less degree upon the subject of Human Rights
Ø Humphrey. “The international
Protection of Human Rights (
“The provisions concerning
human rights run through out the UN. Charter like a golden thread”
5. PROVISIONS
OF THE UN CHARTER CONCERNING HUMAN RIGHTS
There are following references in the preamble of UN charter;
Art 13 Purposes of UN
Art 13 (2) responsibilities of general assembly
Art 55 (c) functions of ECOSOC
Art 62 (2) responsibility of ECOSOC’s
Commission
Art 68 objectives of the trusteeship system
Views of philosophers
Ø
Ian brow lie, Principles of public
international law (second edition, 1973). P 552
“The
provisions of UN. Charter concerning human rights provides a foundation
for protection of human rights.”
Ø
Oppenheim, International law. Vol eighth edition (1970), edited by lauterpatch,
P.783
“The provisions
of UN Charter indicates the wide possibilities of the international
recognition of human rights.”
6. HUMAN
RIGHT COMMISSION
The commission on human
rights established by the Economic and Social Council in February 1946
Purpose of HRC
Ø
Ian brow lie, Principles of public
international law (second edition, 1973). P 554
“The purpose of Human
Right Commission is protection of human rights”
There are following
categories of rights;
v
Civil and Political Rights
v
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
v
Environmental Rights
v
Reproductive Rights
8. UNIVERSAL
DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
The Universal Declaration of
Human Rights was adopted by General Assembly on 1948. This Declaration consists
of a preamble and 30 articles."It is not a
treaty. In the future, it may well become the international Magna Charta."
The Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) is a non-binding declaration adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II.
Although the UDHR is a non-binding resolution, it is now considered to be a
central component of international customary law which may be invoked under
appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries. The UDHR urges
member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights,
asserting these rights are part of the "foundation of freedom, justice and
peace in the world." The declaration was the first international legal
effort to limit the behavior of states and press upon them duties to their
citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality.
9.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Following
are a few International Human Rights mentioned in Universal Declaration of
Human rights with relevant Provisions/Articles.
1.
Right to life and
liberty Art 3
2.
Prohibition of
slavery Art 4
3.
Prohibition of
torture Art 5
4.
Equality of all Art 6-11
5.
Freedom of movement Art
13
6.
Rights to seek asylum Art
14
7.
Right to nationality Art
15
8.
Right to own property Art
17
9.
Freedom of religion Art
18
10.
Freedom of opinion Art
19
11.
Freedom of
Association Art 20
12.
Right to social
security Art 22
13.
Right to employment Art
23
14.
Right to education Art
26
Followings are a few
conventions relating to protection of international human rights.
v
Employment policy convention 1964
v
Convention on forced labor 1957
v
Collective bargaining convention 1949
v
Convention relating to status of refugee 1951
v
Equal remuneration convention 1951
v
Convention on political rights of women 1952
v
Convention relating to stateless person 1954
v
Others.
11.
REGIONAL CONVENTION
At regional level there
exists a European Convention on protection of human rights.
This convention was signed
at the inter-American specialized conference on human rights at
13.
The Geneva Conventions came
into being between 1864 and 1949 as a result of efforts by Henry Dunant, the founder of the International Committee of the
Red Cross. The conventions safeguard the human rights of individuals involved
in armed conflict, and build on the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions, the
international community's first attempt to formalize the laws of war and war
crimes in the nascent body of secular international law. The conventions were
revised as a result of World War II and readopted by the international
community in 1949.
The Geneva Conventions are:
v
First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration
of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field"
(first adopted in 1864, last revision in 1949)
v
Second Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration
of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at
Sea" (first adopted in 1949, successor of the 1907 Hague Convention X)
v
Third Geneva Convention "relative to the
Treatment of Prisoners of War" (first adopted in 1929, last revision in
1949)
v
Fourth Geneva Convention "relative to the
Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" (first adopted in 1949,
based on parts of the 1907 Hague Convention IV)
In addition, there are three
additional amendment protocols to the Geneva Convention:
Ø
Protocol I (1977): Protocol Additional to the Geneva
Conventions of
Ø
Protocol II (1977): Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of
Ø
Protocol III (2005): Protocol Additional to the
Geneva Conventions of
All four conventions were
last revised and ratified in 1949, based on previous revisions and partly on
some of the 1907 Hague Conventions. Later conferences have added provisions
prohibiting certain methods of warfare and addressing issues of civil wars.
Nearly all-200 countries of the world are "signatory" nations, in
that they have ratified these conventions. The International Committee of the
Red Cross is the controlling body of the
14.
INTERNATIONAL
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
Human rights law is a system
of laws, both domestic and international, designed to promote human rights.
Human rights law includes a number of treaties, which are intended to punish
some violations of human rights such as war crimes, crimes against humanity and
genocide. There are also a number of international courts, which have been
constituted to judge violations of human rights including the European Court of
Human Rights and the International Criminal Court.
An important concept within
human rights law is that of universal jurisdiction. This concept, which is not
widely accepted, is that any nation is authorized to prosecute and punish
violations of human rights wherever and whenever they may have occurred.
15.
HUMAN RIGHTS
TREATIES
In 1966, the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) were adopted by the United
Nations, between them making the rights contained in the UDHR binding on all
states that have signed this treaty. However they only came into force in 1976
when they were ratified by a sufficient number of countries (despite achieving
the ICCPR, a covenant including no economic or social rights, the
Since then numerous other
treaties (pieces of legislation) have been offered at the international level.
They are generally known as human rights instruments. Some of the most
significant are:
1. Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(adopted 1948, entry into force: 1951)
2. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(CERD) (adopted 1966, entry into force: 1969)
3. Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) (entry into force: 1981)
4. United Nations Convention Against Torture (CAT) (adopted 1984, entry into
force: 1984)
5. Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (adopted 1989, entry into
force: 1989)
6. International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant
Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW) (adopted 1990)
7. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) (entry into
force: 2002)
16.
ENFORCEMENT OF
HUMAN RIGHTS LAW
By international law, the
United Nations Security Council is the only group authorized to enforce human
rights laws. Historically, it has often been the case that a government will
make claims of human rights violations in another country as a reason to go to
war against that country.
The United Nations (UN) is
the only multilateral governmental agency with universally accepted
international jurisdiction for universal human rights legislation. All UN
organs have advisory roles to the United Nations Security Council and the
United Nations Human Rights Council, and there are numerous committees within
the UN with responsibilities for safeguarding different human rights treaties.
The most senior body of the UN with regard to human rights is the Office of the
High Commissioner for Human Rights. The United Nations has an international
mandate to: achieve international co-operation in solving international
problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character and in
promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms
for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
18.
HUMAN RIGHTS
COUNCIL
The United Nations Human
Rights Council, created at the 2005 World Summit to replace the United Nations
Commission on Human Rights, has a mandate to investigate violations of human
rights. The Human Rights Council is a subsidiary body of the General Assembly
and reports directly to it. It ranks below the Security Council, which is the
final authority for the interpretation of the United Nations Charter.
Forty-seven of the one hundred ninety-one member states sit on the council,
elected by simple majority in a secret ballot of the United Nations General
Assembly. Members serve a maximum of six years and may have their membership
suspended for gross human rights abuses. The Council is based in
Independent experts are
retained by the Council to investigate alleged human rights abuses and to
provide the Council with reports. The Human Rights Council may request that the
Security Council take action when human rights violations occur. This action
may be direct actions, may involve sanctions, and the Security Council may also
refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) even if the issue being
referred is outside the normal jurisdiction of the ICC.
19.
SECURITY
COUNCIL
The United Nations Security
Council has the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and
security and is the only body of the UN that can authorize the use of force
(including in the context of peace-keeping operations), or override member
nations sovereignty by issuing binding Security Council resolutions. Created by
the UN Charter, it is classed as a Charter Body of the United Nations. The UN
Charter gives the Security Council the power to:
·
Investigate any situation threatening international
peace;
·
Recommend procedures for peaceful resolution of a
dispute;
·
Call upon other member nations to completely or
partially interrupt economic relations as well as sea, air, postal, and radio
communications, or to sever diplomatic relations; and
·
Enforce its decisions militarily, if necessary.
The Security Council hears
reports from all organs of the United Nations, and can take action over any
issue, which it feels threatens peace and security, including human rights
issues. It has at times been criticized for failing to take action to prevent
human rights abuses, including the
The Rome Statute of the
International Criminal Court recognizes the Security Council the power to refer
cases to the Court, where the Court could not otherwise exercise jurisdiction.
20.
OTHER UN
TREATY BODIES
A modern interpretation of
the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the Vienna Declaration and
Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference
on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in
terms of how many and which countries have ratified them varies, as does the
degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a
number of treaty-based bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the
leadership of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR). The bodies
are committees of independent experts that monitor implementation of the core
international human rights treaties. The treaty that they monitor creates them.
The Human Rights Committee promotes participation with
the standards of the ICCPR. The eighteen members of the committee express
opinions on member countries and make judgments on individual complaints
against countries, which have ratified the treaty. The judgments are not
legally binding.
The Committee on Economic,
Cultural and Social Rights monitors the ICESCR and makes general comments on ratifying countries
performance. It does not have the power to receive complaints.
The Committee on the
Elimination of Racial Discrimination monitors the CERD and conducts regular reviews of
countries' performance. It can make judgments on complaints, but these are not
legally binding. It issues warnings to attempt to prevent serious
contraventions of the convention.
The Committee on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women monitors the CEDAW. It receives states'
reports on their performance and comments on them, and can make judgments on
complaints against countries, which have opted into the 1999 Optional Protocol.
The Committee Against Torture monitors the CAT and receives states' reports on
their performance every four years and comments on them. It may visit and
inspect individual countries with their consent.
The Committee on the Rights
of the Child
monitors the CRC and makes comments on reports submitted by states every five
years. It does not have the power to receive complaints.
The Committee on Migrant
Workers was
established in 2004 and monitors the ICRMW and makes comments on reports
submitted by states every five years. It will have the power to receive
complaints of specific violations only once ten member states allow it.
Each treaty body receives
secretariat support from the Treaties and Commission Branch of Office of the
High Commissioner on Human Rights (OHCHR) in
21.
INTERNATIONAL
COMMITTEE OF THE RED CROSS
Under the 1949 Geneva
Conventions the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) has legal
status as a non-governmental sovereign entity. It has a mandate to be the
controlling authority of International Humanitarian Law. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is an
impartial, neutral, and independent organization whose exclusively humanitarian
mission is to protect the lives and dignity of victims of war and internal
violence and to provide them with assistance.”
The ICRC directs and
coordinates international relief and works to promote and strengthen
humanitarian law and universal humanitarian principles. The core tasks of the
Committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes,
are the following:
·
To monitor compliance of warring parties with the
Geneva Conventions
·
To organize nursing and care for those who are
wounded on the battlefield
·
To supervise the treatment of prisoners of war and
make confidential interventions with detaining authorities
·
To help with the search for missing persons in an
armed conflict (tracing service)
·
To organize protection and care for civil
populations
·
To act as a neutral intermediary between warring
parties
The ICRC drew up seven
fundamental principles in 1965 that were adopted by the entire Red Cross
Movement. They are humanity, impartiality, neutrality, independence,
volunteerism, unity, and universality.
Although the ICRC has no
powers to enforce the rights enshrined in the Geneva Conventions, its
statements carry significant force, and few countries or warring parties deny
the ICRC access to the individuals it exists to protect. Doing so has a
significant effect on public opinion and international standing and can be
taken as an implicit admission of wrongdoing. The initial refusal of the
There are many regional
agreements and organizations promoting and governing human rights.
The African Union (AU) is a
supranational union consisting of fifty-three African states. Established in
2001, the AU purpose is to help secure
The African Commission on
Human and Peoples' Rights (ACHPR) is a quasi-judicial organ of the African
Union tasked with promoting and protecting human rights and collective
(peoples') rights throughout the African continent as well as interpreting the
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and considering individual
complaints of violations of the Charter. The Commission has three broad areas
of responsibility:
·
Promoting human and peoples' rights
·
Protecting human and peoples' rights
·
Interpreting the African Charter on Human and
Peoples' Rights
In pursuit of these goals,
the Commission is mandated to "collect documents, undertake studies and
researches on African problems in the field of human and peoples, rights,
organize seminars, symposia and conferences, disseminate information, encourage
national and local institutions concerned with human and peoples' rights and,
should the case arise, give its views or make recommendations to
governments" (Charter, Art. 45).
With the creation of the
African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights (under a protocol to the Charter
which was adopted in 1998 and entered into force in January 2004), the
Commission will have the additional task of preparing cases for submission to
the Court's jurisdiction. In a July 2004 decision, the AU Assembly resolved
that the future Court on Human and Peoples' Rights would be integrated with the
African Court of Justice.
The Court of Justice of the
African Union is intended to be the “principal judicial organ of the
The Organization of American
States (OAS) is an international organization, headquartered in
v
Strengthening democracy
v
Working for peace
v
Protecting human rights
v
Combating corruption
v
The rights of Indigenous Peoples
v
Promoting sustainable development
The
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (the IACHR) is an autonomous organ of
the Organization of American States, also based in
·
The OAS Charter
·
The American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of
Man
·
The American Convention on Human Rights
The Inter-American Court of
Human Rights was established in 1979 with the purpose of enforcing and
interpreting the provisions of the American Convention on Human Rights. Its two
main functions are thus adjudicatory and advisory. Under the former, it hears
and rules on the specific cases of human rights violations referred to it.
Under the latter, it issues opinions on matters of legal interpretation brought
to its attention by other OAS bodies or member states.
Many countries in the
There are no Asia-wide
organizations or conventions to promote or protect human rights. Countries vary
widely in their approach to human rights and their record of human rights
protection.
The Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is a geo-political and economic
organization of 10 countries located in
The South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight
countries in
The Cooperation Council for
the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG) is a trade bloc involving the six Arab states of
the
The Asia Cooperation
Dialogue (ACD)
is a body created in 2002 to promote Asian cooperation at a continental level,
helping to integrate the previously separate regional organizations of
political or economical cooperation. The main objectives of the ACD are as
follows:
v
To promote interdependence among Asian countries in
all areas of cooperation by identifying Asia's common strengths and
opportunities which will help reduce poverty and improve the quality of life
for Asian people whilst developing a knowledge-based society within Asia and
enhancing community and people empowerment;
v
To expand the trade and financial market within
v
To serve as the missing link in Asian cooperation by
building upon Asia's potentials and strengths through supplementing and
complementing existing cooperative frameworks so as to become a viable partner
for other regions;
v
To ultimately transform the Asian continent into an
Asian Community, capable of interacting with the rest of the world on a more
equal footing and contributing more positively towards mutual peace and
prosperity.
v
None of the above organizations have a specific
mandate to promote or protect human rights, but each has some human rights
related economic, social and cultural objectives.
v
A number of Asian countries are accused of serious
human rights abuses by the international community and human rights
organizations.
The Council of Europe,
founded in 1949, is the oldest organization working for European integration.
It is an international organization with legal personality recognized under
public international law and has observer status with the United Nations. The
seat of the Council of Europe is in
The Council of Europe is
separate from the European Union, but the latter is expected to accede to the
European Convention and potentially the Council itself. The EU also has a
separate human rights document; the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the
European Union.
The European Convention on
Human Rights defines and guarantees since 1950 human rights and fundamental
freedoms in
The European Court of Human
Rights is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases
brought by individuals (rather than states).
There are no regional
approaches or agreements on human rights for
v
Animal rights
v
Children's rights
v
Civil rights
v
Collective rights
v
Equal rights
v
Fathers' rights
v
Gay rights
v
Group rights
v
Human rights
v
Inalienable rights
v
Individual rights
v
Legal rights
v
Men's rights
v
Natural right
v
Negative & positive
v
Reproductive rights
v
Self-defense
v
Social rights
v
"Three generations"
v
Women's rights
v
Workers' rights
v
Youth rights
Several theoretical
approaches have been advanced to explain how and why human rights become part
of social expectations.
One of the oldest Western
philosophies on human rights is that they are a product of a natural law,
stemming from different philosophical or religious grounds.
Other theories hold that
human rights codify moral behavior which is a human social product developed by
a process of biological and social evolution (associated with Hume). Human
rights are also described as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the
sociological theory of law and the work of Weber). These approaches include the
notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in
exchange for security and economic advantage a social contract.
29.
NATURAL RIGHTS
Natural law theories base
human rights on a “natural” moral, religious or even biological order that is
independent of transitory human laws or traditions.
Socrates and his philosophic
heirs, Plato and Aristotle, posited the existence of natural justice or natural
right (Latin jus naturale). Of these, Aristotle is
often said to be the father of natural law, although evidence for this is due
largely to the interpretations of his work by Thomas Aquinas. The development
of this tradition of natural justice into one of natural law is usually
attributed to the Stoics.
Some of the early Church
Fathers sought to incorporate the pagan concept of natural law into
Christianity. Natural law theories have featured greatly in the philosophies of
Thomas Aquinas, Francisco Suarez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf,
and John Locke.
The term "human
rights" has replaced the term "natural rights" in popularity,
because the rights are less and less frequently seen as requiring natural law
for their existence.
Companies, NGOs, political
parties, informal groups, and individuals are known as non-State actors. Non-State
actors can also commit human rights abuses, but are not generally subject to
human rights law other than under International Humanitarian Law, which applies
to individuals. Also, certain national instruments such as the Human Rights Act
1998 (
Multi-national companies
play an increasingly large role in the world, and are responsible for a large
number of human rights abuses. Although the legal and moral environment
surrounding the actions of governments is reasonably well developed, that
surrounding multi-national companies is both controversial and ill-defined.
Multi-national companies' primary responsibility is to their shareholders, not
to those affected by their actions. Such companies may be larger than the
economies of some the states within which they operate, and can wield
significant economic and political power. No international treaties exist to
specifically cover the behavior of companies with regard to human rights, and
national legislation is very variable. Jean Ziegler, Special Reporter of the UN
Commission on Human Rights on the right to food stated in a report in 2003:“the
growing power of transnational corporations and their extension of power
through privatization, deregulation and the rolling back of the State also mean
that it is now time to develop binding legal norms that hold corporations to
human rights standards and circumscribe potential abuses of their position of
power.”
Human rights violations
occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the UDHR treaty or
other international human rights or humanitarian law. In regard to human rights
violations of United Nations laws. Article 39 of the United Nations Charter
designates the UN Security Council (or an appointed authority) as the only
tribunal that may determine UN human rights violations.
Human rights abuses are
monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments
and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty
International, Human Rights Watch, World Organization Against
Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and
Anti-Slavery International. These organizations collect evidence and
documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce
human rights laws.
Only a very few countries do
not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty
International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003), the
There are a wide variety of
databases available, which attempt to measure, in a rigorous fashion, exactly
what violations governments commit against those within their territorial
jurisdiction. An example of this is the list created and maintained by Prof.
Christian Davenport at the
There is no current
universal human right to water, binding or not, enshrined by the United Nations
or any other multilateral body. In November 2002, the United Nations Committee
on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a non-binding comment affirming
that access to water was a human right: “the human right to water is
indispensable for leading a life in human dignity. It is a prerequisite for the
realization of other human rights.”
United Nations Committee on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights This principle was reaffirmed at the 3rd
and 4th World Water Councils in 2003 and 2006. This marks a departure from the
conclusions of the 2nd World Water Forum in
33.
FETAL RIGHTS
Proposed rights of the fetus
have been a controversial subject. Currently, human rights only apply to
individuals. Pro-life and pro-choice groups dispute the point at which a fetus
is considered to be an individual in particular. Those who are pro-life believe
that an individual's life begins at the moment of conception, or at the time of
implantation, and therefore believe that the fetus has equal rights to any
other person. Others, including many pro-choice groups, argue that until the
point at which the fetus is viable (or could survive alone), typically marked
somewhere within the third trimester, the rights of the fetus are secondary to
and dependent upon those of the mother.
The onset of global warming
and a heightened knowledge of environmentalism has
created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights
ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the
granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. In the area of
environmental rights, the responsibilities of multi-national corporations, so
far relatively undressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount
consideration.
Future technological
advances, such as the possibility of mass space travel, the advances in the
internet and the possibility of access to huge amounts of information, and
others, all raise the possibility of new rights.
In Britain of late,
reformers have demanded a new Supreme Court-enforceable Bill of Rights to
protect a much wider range of economic, political, judicial, communication, and
personal rights and freedoms than are currently protected under basic law.
36.
Epitome
Human rights are seen as
belonging to men and women by their very nature. Another way to describe human
rights would be to call them common rights, for they are rights which all men
or women in the world should share. The element of human rights is also found
in the
v
Amnesty International (2004). Amnesty International
Report. Amnesty International Publications. ISBN 0862103541 ISBN 1-887204-40-7
v
Alexander, Fran (ed)
(1998). Encyclopedia of World History.
v
Alston, Philip (2005). "Ships passing in the
Night: The Current State of the Human Rights and Development Debate seen
through the Lens of the Millennium Development Goals". Human Rights
Quarterly. Vol. 27 (No. 3) p.807
v
Arnhart, Larry (1998). Darwinian
Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature SUNY Press. ISBN
0791436934
v
Ball, Olivia; Gready, Paul
(2007). The No-Nonsense Guide to Human Rights. New Internationalist. ISBN
1-904456-45-6
v
Barzilai, Gad. (2003). Communities
and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities.
v
Chauhan, O.P. (2004). Human Rights:
Promotion and Protection. Anmol Publications PVT.
LTD. ISBN 812612119X.
v
Cook, Rebecca J.; Fathalla,
Mahmoud F. (September 1996). "Advancing
Reproductive Rights Beyond
v
v